EAST AND WEST

In the annals of ancient Greek history, one name stands out as the epitome of political oratory and persuasive speech – Demosthenes. Born in Athens in 384 BCE, Demosthenes emerged as one of the most influential figures of the 4th century BC, shaping the course of Athenian politics and leaving behind a legacy that continues to inspire generations of orators and statesmen to this day. The corpus of his speeches, collectively known as the “Orations,” is a testament to his mastery of rhetoric, his deep understanding of politics, and his commitment to defending the ideals of democracy.

Demosthenes lived during a tumultuous period in ancient Greece. Athens, the epicenter of democracy, was grappling with political instability, foreign threats, and internal dissent. Macedon, under the leadership of Philip II and later his son, Alexander the Great, sought to assert its dominance over the Greek city-states. Amid these challenging times, Demosthenes emerged as the champion of Athenian democracy, advocating for a united front against Macedon and emphasizing the importance of Hellenic freedom.

Demosthenes’ orations are a collection of political speeches delivered in the Athenian Assembly and the law courts. These speeches were crafted to address various issues, from the defense of Athenian allies to condemning political opponents. The orations are a window into the political landscape of the time and reveal the tactics and strategies employed by Demosthenes to sway public opinion and rally support for his causes.

The First Philippic (Φιλιππικός Α)

In this famous speech delivered in 351 BCE, Demosthenes warns the Athenians about the growing threat posed by Philip II of Macedon. He criticizes the lack of unity and resolve among the Greek city-states and emphasizes the need to take immediate action to counter the Macedonian expansion. Demosthenes implores his fellow Athenians to set aside their internal squabbles and form a united front to protect their democracy and independence.

“Οὐκοῦν, Ἀθηναῖοι, μεγάλης ἔργον ἐπιτετελεσμένοι ἐστὲ καὶ θαυμαστῶν, καὶ τοιούτων, ὧν ἐγὼ ὑμῖν διηγεῖσθαι νῦν μέλλω, οἵαν οὔτε τῷ χρόνῳ γενομένων προσδοκᾶτε ἄν, οὔτε τῇ ψυχῇ πιστεύετε ὑπομενεῖν, οὔτε τοῖς φόροις δυνησόμεθα καταβαλεῖν, ἢ ταῖς στρατείαις ὑπηρετήσομεν κινδυνεύοντες.”

“So, Athenians, you have accomplished great and admirable deeds, and such as you would not even have expected to happen in time, nor would you have believed that your spirit could endure them, nor that you could meet the expenses, or that you could render military service at the peril of your lives.”

In this opening passage, Demosthenes employs powerful rhetorical devices, including repetition and parallelism, to emphasize the magnitude of the Athenians’ accomplishments and the challenges they face. He aims to rouse his audience’s emotions and pride in their past achievements, while also instilling a sense of urgency about the looming threat of Macedon.

In the Second Philippic (Φιλιππικός Β), Demosthenes passionately calls for united resistance against Philip’s encroachment:

“Πάλαι μέντοι δοκεῖτε ἔπος ἀκούειν τοιοῦτον, ἔνθεν εἴη μέγιστος καὶ αἰτία τῶν κακῶν πάντων, ἀδικίας δ᾽ αὕτη μιᾶς γένοιτο αἴτιος, μὴ θέλοντες βραχὺν χρόνον τῆς εἰρήνης ἀπολαύειν πολλοῦ τοῦ πολέμου κίνδυνον.”

“Yet you have long been hearing this statement, that from this source springs the greatest and sole cause of all our troubles; this alone is responsible for the fact that you are not content to enjoy a brief period of peace but are running the risk of a long war.”

In this excerpt, Demosthenes masterfully uses the power of rhetoric to denounce Philip as the root cause of their problems. He warns against complacency and urges the Athenians to take action, highlighting the gravity of the threat posed by the Macedonian king.

On the Crown (Περὶ τοῦ στεφάνου)

One of Demosthenes’ most renowned speeches, delivered in 330 BCE, is the “On the Crown.” In this oration, he defends himself against the charges brought forth by his political rival, Aeschines, who accused Demosthenes of corruption and betrayal of Athens. This speech becomes a pivotal moment in Demosthenes’ political career, a declaration of his unwavering commitment to Athenian democracy and its principles.

“Οὐκ ἄλλου πράγματος, ὦ ἄνδρες δικασταί, δεῖται τῶν πρὸς ἀνθρώπους συμβουλευτῶν ἢ ἐκείνου διαγγέλλοντος ὅσιόν ἐστιν κἀγαθόν.”

“There is no need for any other business, O judges when someone comes to counsel with men, than for him to make it clear what is just and honorable.”

In this excerpt, Demosthenes emphasizes the importance of justice and righteousness in political affairs. He seeks to dispel the accusations against him and portrays himself as a steadfast advocate for Athenian values and interests. Through this masterful defense, Demosthenes exemplifies the art of persuasive oratory, skillfully appealing to the moral sensibilities of the jury.

Demosthenes’ oratory skills, political acumen, and dedication to the ideals of democracy continue to inspire leaders, statesmen, and speakers throughout history. His speeches are studied in modern rhetoric and political science courses, and his methods of persuasion remain timeless. By using rhetoric as a tool to awaken Athenian patriotism and unite the city-state, Demosthenes demonstrated the transformative power of words in shaping the course of history.

Demosthenes’ orations have transcended the boundaries of time and remain enduring symbols of the power of rhetoric in shaping political discourse and influencing public opinion.